Reflexiones acerca de las cambiantes narrativas sobre las vacunas contra la COVID-19

Nos propusimos discernir en qué medida las estrategias mediáticas adoptadas en torno a las vacunas contra la COVID-19, a lo largo de los primeros 15 meses desde el comienzo de su aplicación, pueden considerarse aportes legítimos y coherentes para comprender mejor su desempeño, y en qué grado las narrativas elaboradas pudieran responder a intereses económicos de las élites corporativas. Una vez recopilados los elementos más relevantes con que se configuran las narrativas predominantes desde el momento en que se concibieron las vacunas, se identificaron diversas anomalías que resultaron, en mayor o menor medida, invisibilizadas en el proceso de su aprobación y de los resultados de su aplicación. Las más significativas conciernen al manejo de las definiciones, los incumplimientos de compromisos y los conflictos de interés que comprometen la actuación de las empresas comercializadoras y los entes reguladores de las vacunas. Numerosos elementos relacionados con los intereses corporativos han gravitado en la elaboración del relato sobre las vacunas. Entre los que reclaman resignificación se hallan: su capacidad preventiva real de contagios, evoluciones graves y muertes, su eficacia ante nuevas variantes, la duración de la inmunidad que confieren, sus efectos adversos, el papel sinérgico de la inmunidad adquirida y los recursos empleados por las empresas para conseguir un predominio virtualmente monopólico en el mercado.

We set out to discern to what extent the media strategies adopted around the vaccines against covid-19 during the first 15 months since the beginning of their application can be considered as a legitimate and coherent contributions to a better understanding about their performance and to what extent the elaborated discourses could respond to the economic interests of the corporations' elites. Once the most relevant elements that have shaped the predominant narratives from the moment the vaccines were conceived were compiled, several anomalies were identified that were to a greater or lesser extent invisibilized in the process of their approval and the results of their application. The most significant of these concern the handling of definitions, non-compliance with commitments and conflicts of interest that compromise the actions of vaccine marketing companies and regulatory bodies. Many elements related to corporative interests have influenced the narrative concerning vaccines. Among those that require a resignification are: their real preventive capacity against contagions, serious diseases and deaths, their efficacy against new variants, the duration of the immunity they confer, their side effects, the synergic role of acquired immunity, and the resources used by the companies to achieve a virtually market monopolistic predominance.

Propomo-nos discernir em que medida as estratégias mediáticas adotadas em torno das vacinas covid-19, ao longo dos primeiros 15 meses desde o início da sua aplicação, podem dar contribuições legítimas e coerentes para melhor compreender o seu desempenho, e em que medida as narrativas poderiam responder aos interesses econômicos das elites corporativas. Uma vez compilados os elementos mais relevantes com os quais se configuram as narrativas predominantes desde o momento em que as vacinas foram concebidas, foram identificadas diversas anomalias que foram, em maior ou menor medida, invisibilizadas no processo de sua aprovação e nos resultados de sua aplicação . As mais significativas dizem respeito à gestão de definições, descumprimentos de compromissos e conflitos de interesse que comprometem a atuação das empresas comercializadoras e dos órgãos reguladores das vacinas. Inúmeros elementos relacionados a interesses corporativos gravitaram na elaboração da história sobre vacinas. Entre os que demandam ressignificação estão: sua real capacidade preventiva de contágios, evoluções graves e óbitos, sua eficácia contra novas variantes, a duração da imunidade que se consolidou, seus efeitos adversos, o papel sinérgico da imunidade adquirida e os recursos utilizados. empresas para alcançar o domínio do monopólio virtual no mercado.

The role of tumor necrosis factor alpha - 308A > G polymorphism on the clinical states of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Background: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFɑ) is a cytokine that manages the host defense mechanism, which may play a role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 patients. Several single-nucleotide polymorphisms, described in the promoter region of the TNFα gene, have a significant role on its transcriptional activity. These include the - 308A > G polymorphism which increases the TNFα levels with the expression of the A allele. The aim of this study was to explore whether the TNFα.- 308A > G polymorphism affects the clinical state of COVID-19 patients. The study included a total of 1028 individuals infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which were distributed in 3 groups: asymptomatic, mild symptomatic and severe symptomatic patients. The amplification-refractory mutation system was used to determine the genotype of the TNFα.- 308A > G polymorphism. Results: Results show a higher tendency of being asymptomatic in individuals carrying the GG genotype (336 of 411; OR 1.24, 95% CI 0.91-1.70). The development of a severe form of SARS-CoV-2 infection was not found in subjects with the A allele compared to those with the G allele (OR 0.96, 95% CI 0.51-1.79), except in the eastern region of the country where the risk increased (OR 4.41, 95% CI 1.14-17.05). However, the subjects carrying the A allele had a higher chance of developing symptoms (OR 1.24, 95% CI 0.91-1.70) compared to those with the G allele. Conclusion: The TNFα.- 308A allele has an influence on developing symptoms of COVID-19 in Cuban patients, and that it particularly increases the risk of presenting severe forms of the disease in the eastern region of the country.

A Year in the COVID-19 Epidemic: Cuba and Uruguay in the Latin American Context.

INTRODUCTION: One year after WHO declared COVID-19 a pandemic, we found it useful to carry out a diagnosis of the situation in Latin America. OBJECTIVE: Examine the prevailing epidemiological panorama in mid-March 2021 in 16 countries in Latin America and the performance, over time, in the two countries with the best responses to their respective epidemics. METHODS: Using morbidity and mortality data, we compared the relative performance of each country under review and identified the two countries with the most successful responses to the pandemic. We used five indicators to analyze the course of each country's performance during the pandemic throughout 2020: prevalence of active cases per million population; cumulative incidence rate in 7 days per 100,000 population; positivity rate over a 7-day period; percentage of recovered patients and crude mortality rate per 1,000,000 population. RESULTS: According to the performance indicators, Cuba was ranked highest, followed by Uruguay. Although figures remained within acceptable margins, both nations experienced notable setbacks in the first weeks of 2021, especially sharp in Uruguay. CONCLUSIONS: Any characterization of the situation is condemned to be short-lived due to the emergence of mutational variants; however, this analysis identified favorable sociodemographic characteristics in both nations, and in their health systems, which may offer possible explanations for the results we obtained.

Características clínico-epidemiológicas de pacientes cubanos residentes en La Habana afectados por la COVID-19 / Clinical-epidemiological characteristics of patients affected by COVID-19 residing in Havana

Introducción: La Habana fue el territorio más complejo a nivel nacional en el enfrentamiento al primer brote de la COVID-19. Su condición de capital, la densidad poblacional, la escasa delimitación geográfica entre sus municipios, el elevado flujo intermunicipal e interprovincial de personas, sumado a que es la provincia que mayor número de viajeros recibe procedentes del extranjero, confirieron a este territorio particularidades en el enfrentamiento a la pandemia. Objetivo: Determinar las principales características clínico-epidemiológicas de pacientes cubanos residentes en La Habana afectados por la COVID-19. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio observacional, analítico, de corte transversal. La muestra quedó formada por 431 pacientes, mayores de un año, de alta epidemiológica de la infección por SARS-CoV-2. Para la recolección de información se aplicó un cuestionario a través de una entrevista. Resultados: La edad promedio de la muestra fue de 45 años. Más de la mitad de los casos evolucionaron de modo sintomático (no grave o grave). La fiebre fue la manifestación clínica más frecuente. Los individuos incluidos en la muestra, con grupo sanguíneo O, o con antecedentes de asma, mostraron menos riesgo de presentar formas sintomáticas de la enfermedad. Conclusiones: Los resultados sugieren que la edad constituye el principal factor de riesgo para desarrollar formas sintomáticas (no graves o graves) de la COVID-19. De modo contrario, el grupo sanguíneo O y el antecedente de asma son factores de protección para estas formas de evolución clínica(AU)

Introduction: Havana city was the most complex territory at the national level facingthe first outbreak of COVID-19. Its condition of capital, the population density, the limited geographical delimitation between its municipalities, the high inter-municipal and inter-provincial flow of people, added to the fact that it is the province that receives the largest number of travelers from abroad, conferred particularities on this territory. Objective: To determine the main clinical-epidemiological characteristics of patients affected by COVID-19 living in Havana. Methods: An observational, analytical, cross-sectional study was carried out. The sample contained 431 patients, older than one year, with epidemiological discharge from the SARS-CoV-2 infection. To collect information, a questionnaire was applied through an interview. Results: The average age of the sample was 45 years. More than half of the cases evolved in a symptomatic way (not serious or serious). Fever was the most frequent clinical manifestation. The individuals included in the sample, with blood group O or with a background of asthma, showed less risk of presenting symptomatic forms of the disease. Conclusions: The results suggest that age is the main risk factor for developing symptomatic forms (not severe or severe) of COVID-19. On the contrary, blood group O and a history of asthma are protective factors for these forms of clinical evolution(AU)

La COVID-19 en Cuba. Apuntes para debates sobre métodos estadístico-matemáticos / COVID-19 in Cuba. Notes for debating statistical-mathematical methods

RESUMEN La epidemiología y los métodos estadístico-matemáticos asociados a ella son campos que adquieren relevancia a la luz del enfrentamiento a la epidemia por el SARS-CoV-2 en Cuba. Para optimizar los esfuerzos en futuras batallas, que al parecer se avecinan, es necesario analizar críticamente lo que se ha hecho en ese sentido. El objetivo de este trabajo es identificar las insuficiencias en el enfoque epidemiológico y de las técnicas estadístico-matemáticas asociadas, en el tratamiento estadístico del curso de la epidemia de COVID-19. Se realizó una revisión documental, fundamentalmente de revistas médicas cubanas, y en la base de datos Pubmed. Se seleccionaron artículos y reportes que trataron el tema de la COVID-19 desde una perspectiva epidemiológica y/o estadístico-matemática. El uso de técnicas estadístico-matemáticas sin un fundamento epidemiológico adecuado, puede generar falsas expectativas y dificultar la toma de decisiones adecuadas. Esto ocurre, en particular, con modelos que pretenden describir, analizar y predecir, el comportamiento de las curvas de casos activos. Los aspectos discutidos, de corte estadístico-epidemiológico, pueden contribuir modestamente a los necesarios debates, sin los cuales es imposible hacer un balance objetivo de la situación.

ABSTRACT Epidemiology and the statistical-mathematical methods associated with it are fields that acquire relevance in light of the confrontation with the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic in Cuba. To optimize efforts in future battles, it is necessary to critically analyze what has been done in this regard. The objective of this work is to identify the shortcomings in the epidemiological approach and associated statistical-mathematical techniques, in the statistical treatment of the course of the COVID-19 epidemic. A documentary review was carried out, mainly of Cuban medical journals, and in the Pubmed database. Articles and reports were selected that dealt with the subject of COVID-19 from an epidemiological and/or statistical-mathematical perspective. The use of statistical-mathematical techniques without an adequate epidemiological basis can generate false expectations and make it difficult to make adequate decisions. This occurs, in particular, with models that aim to describe, analyze and predict the behavior of the curves of active cases. The issues discussed, of a statistical-epidemiological nature, can contribute modestly to the necessary debates, without which it is impossible to make an objective assessment of the situation.

Un año de epidemia de COVID-19: Cuba y Uruguay en el contexto latinoamericano

RESUMEN Introducción: Transcurrido un año desde que la OMS declaró la diseminación del SARS-COV-2 como una pandemia, consideramos útil realizar un diagnóstico de la situación prevaleciente en la región latinoamericana. Objetivos: Examinar el panorama epidemiológico prevaleciente a mediados del mes de marzo de 2021 en 16 países de la región y el desempeño en el tiempo en los dos países con mejores resultados. Métodos: Con los datos de morbilidad y mortalidad, se realizó una comparación del desempeño relativo de los países considerados y se identificaron las dos naciones con mejores resultados. Para analizar cuantitativamente el derrotero seguido por el proceso epidémico en dichas naciones a lo largo de 2020, se usaron 5 indicadores: tasa de prevalencia de casos activos por millón de habitantes, tasa de incidencia acumulada en 7 días por 100 mil habitantes, tasa de positividad en 7 días, porcentaje de enfermos recuperados y tasa cruda de mortalidad por millón de habitantes. Resultados: Se constató la posición cimera de Cuba en primer lugar, seguido de Uruguay según los indicadores de desempeño considerados. Aunque las cifras se mantienen dentro de márgenes aceptables, se puso de manifiesto el retroceso que ambas naciones han experimentado en las primeras semanas de 2021, especialmente acusado en Uruguay. Conclusiones: Cualquier caracterización de la situación está condenada a ser efímera por la naturaleza mutante de la epidemia; no obstante, el análisis permite identificar que los favorables rasgos sociodemográficos de ambas naciones, así como los de sus sistemas de salud aportan posibles explicaciones para los resultados obtenidos.

ABSTRACT Introduction: One year after the WHO declared the spread of SARS-COV-2 as a pandemic, we consider it useful to approach a diagnosis of the prevailing situation in the Latin American region. Objectives: To examine the prevailing epidemiological scenario in mid-March 2021 in 16 countries of the region, as well as performance over time in the two countries with best outcomes. Methods: Using morbidity and mortality data, we made a comparison of the relative performance of the countries considered and the two nations with the best results were identified. To quantitatively analyze the course followed by the epidemic process in these nations from the outbreak of COVID-19 until the moment of the analysis, 5 indicators were used: prevalence rate of active cases per million inhabitants, cumulative incidence rate in 7 days per 100.000 inhabitants, positivity rate in 7 days, percentage of recovered patients and crude mortality rate per million inhabitants. Results: The top position of Cuba was shown, followed by Uruguay, according to the performance indicators considered. Although the figures remain within acceptable margins, the setback that both nations have experienced in the first weeks of 2021 was revealed, especially marked in Uruguay. Conclusions: Any characterization of the situation is condemned to be transitory due to the mutant nature of the epidemic. However, the examination of twelve complete months allowed to identify that the favorable socio-demographic characteristics of both nations, as well as those of their health systems, provide possible explanations for the results obtained.

Dr. Francisco Rojas Ochoa: actor, testigo y gloria de la salud pública cubana / Dr. Francisco Rojas Ochoa: actor, witness and glory of Cuban public health

El Dr. Francisco Rojas Ochoa fue un intelectual pleno, poseedor de una sensibilidad artística realmente formidable. Sus aportes más notables trascendieron el marco de la ciencia. Desde muy temprano, comprendió la importancia de cuidar la calidad del dato primario como pilar de las estadísticas de salud; defendió infatigablemente los principios de la Salud Pública Cubana, se sumó al combate decidido contra la pseudociencia, cultivó la demografía, las técnicas de dirección administrativa y, sobre todo, la ética médica. Desplegó una valiosa contribución a la Historia de la Medicina y la Salud Pública. No tuvo formación estadística, pero sí un poderoso sentido común que le permitía apropiarse de los resultados de esta disciplina, para cuya interpretación práctica demostraba gran destreza. Durante toda su vida publicó decenas de artículos científicos y numerosos libros. La etapa más fructífera la desarrolló en el marco de diversas instituciones académicas, entre ellas, nuestra actual Escuela Nacional de Salud Pública. Su última publicación, considerada entre las más destacadas, fue Actor y Testigo, constituye un verdadero testamento intelectual(AU)

Dr. Francisco Rojas Ochoa distinguished himself by a full intellectual conviction and a really formidable artistic sensitivity. His most outstanding contributions went beyond the framework of science. Very early in his life, he realized the importance of caring for the quality of primary data as a pillar of health statistics; he tirelessly defended the principles of the Cuban Public Health, joined the decided combat against pseudoscience, developed demography and management techniques and, above all, he safeguarded the principles of medical ethics. He made a significant contribution to the History of Medicine and Public Health. Dr. Rojas Ochoa did not have statistical formation, but he actually had a powerful common sense that allowed him to benefit from its results, demonstrating great skill for their interpretation. During all his life, he published lots of scientific articles and many books. His most fruitful period was specially developed within the framework of several academic institutions, among them, our National School of Public Health. His last publication, which is considered one of the most outstanding, is "Actor y Testigo", a genuine intellectual testament that reveals both privileged spaces as reflected in its title(AU)

The chronic kidney disease epidemic in El Salvador: the influence of agrochemicals / La epidemia de enfermedad renal crónica en El Salvador: la influencia de los agroquímicos

Introduction: An epidemic of chronic kidney disease (CKD) of devastating consequences has been taking place in El Salvador over the last few decades. In a significant portion of affected subjects, no other common cause of chronic kidney disease is present, such as diabetes and hypertension. This illness is usually called Chronic Kidney Disease from Non-Traditional Causes (CKDnT). Previous studies have shown a high prevalence of exposure to agrochemicals in affected populations, particularly in rural areas. In addition to sustained exposure to agrochemicals, the other leading hypothesis to explain this epidemic is prolonged exposure to high temperatures and dehydration in a context of exhausting agricultural work. Objectives: To assess the possible causal effect of exposure to agrochemicals in the emergence of the CKD epidemic in the adult population of El Salvador. Methods: We conducted a case-control analysis based on the 2015 survey of Chronic Diseases in Adults in El Salvador, a national probabilistic sample that covered 4,817 adults ;20 years old. Those suffering from CKD were considered cases; the rest were managed as controls. Self-reported agrochemical exposures, other risk factors and health conditions were recorded. For binary exposures, the odds ratio (OR) of CKD and CKDnT was estimated. For variables measuring length of exposure, the average valu 8203; 8203;for cases and for controls were compared. In all cases, the corresponding 95 percent confidence intervals were calculated. Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine the association between exposure to agrochemicals and CKD while controlling for potential confounding variables. Results: Regardless of how past exposure to agrochemicals was characterized (e.g., contact with paraquat or aerial fumigation) the OR of both CKD and CKDnT was always greater than 1.0 (range, 1.36 to 3.75). Similarly, the average number of years of exposure was consistently higher for cases than for controls for all continuous variables examined (greater than 2 years in most cases). Conclusions: The results of this study are consistent with previous epidemiologic and toxicological evidence and support the hypothesis that exposure to agrochemicals may be causally implicated in the ongoing CKD epidemics in El Salvador(AU)

Introducción: Durante las últimas décadas, una epidemia de enfermedad renal crónica (ERC) de consecuencias devastadoras ha tenido lugar en El Salvador. Una parte importante de los sujetos afectados, no padece de una causa frecuente para padecer enfermedad renal crónica, tal como como diabetes e hipertensión. En tal caso, suele distinguirse la dolencia mediante el nombre de Enfermedad Renal Crónica de Causas no Tradicionales (ERCnT). Estudios previos muestran una alta prevalencia de exposición a agroquímicos en las poblaciones afectadas, particularmente en las zonas rurales. Además de la exposición sostenida a agroquímicos, la otra hipótesis principal para explicar esta epidemia es la exposición prolongada a altas temperaturas y deshidratación, en un contexto de trabajo agrícola agotador. Objetivos: Evaluar el posible efecto causal de la exposición a agroquímicos en la irrupción de la epidemia de ERC en la población adulta de El Salvador. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio de casos y controles, a partir de la Encuesta de Enfermedades Crónicas no Transmisibles en Adultos en El Salvador, basada en una muestra probabilística nacional que abarcó 4,817 adultos de 20 o más años de edad, concluida en 2015. Fueron considerados casos todos aquellos que padecían ERC; el resto dos restantes participantes se manejaron como controles. Se registraron las exposiciones a agroquímicos, así como a otros factores de riesgo y condiciones de salud según testimonio de los participantes. Para las exposiciones binarias, se estimó la razón de odds (OR) con respecto a padecer ERC y ERCnT. Para las variables que medían la duración de la exposición, se compararon los valores medios para casos y controles. En todos los casos, se calcularon los respectivos intervalos de confianza al 95 por ciento. Se utilizó la regresión logística multivariada para examinar la asociación entre la exposición a agroquímicos y la ERC, controlando las posibles variables confusoras. Resultados: Independientemente de cómo fuera caracterizada la exposición pasada a agroquímicos (por ejemplo, contacto con paraquat o fumigación aérea), el OR de ERC y ERCnT siempre fue mayor que 1.0 (rango, 1.36 a 3.75). Del mismo modo, la media de años de exposición fue consistentemente más alta para los casos que para los controles, para todas las variables continuas examinadas (más de 2 años en la mayoría de los casos). Conclusiones: Los resultados de este estudio son consistentes con la evidencia epidemiológica y toxicológica previa y respaldan la hipótesis de que la exposición a agroquímicos puede estar causalmente implicada en la epidemia de ERC que se registra en El Salvador(AU)

Factores relacionados con el control de la hipertensión arterial en Cienfuegos / Factors related to the control of hypertension in Cienfuegos

Introducción: El control de la presión arterial es un desafío global y uno de los principales problemas de salud pública en la actualidad. Objetivos: Describir los factores relacionados con la evolución, detección y control de la hipertensión arterial en Cienfuegos en el periodo de 2001 a 2011, en un contexto de acceso universal a los servicios de salud. Métodos: Estudio poblacional desarrollado en el año 2011, con una muestra representativa probabilística de 1276 adultos entre 25-74 años, residentes en la ciudad de Cienfuegos, Cuba. Resultados: De los hipertensos, el 32,8 por ciento desconocía su condición, el 90 por ciento de los que conocían su condición llevaban tratamiento y el 29,8 por ciento estaban controlados. El riesgo de no control fue significativamente superior en las personas con más de 65 años, en las de raza negra o mestiza y en las que tenían más de un año sin ir a su médico o controlarse la presión arterial. Con relación al 2001, el porcentaje de hipertensos que desconocían su condición se incrementó en 11,3 por ciento; se redujo el número de tratados en un 3,4 por ciento y el nivel de control en un 10 por ciento. Conclusiones: Existe un grupo de factores como la edad, la raza, y la falta de seguimiento de las personas en los servicios de salud para la detección y control de la HTA que afectan su comportamiento. Los resultados, aunque superan los reportados por otros países de la región, sugieren brechas en la detección, el seguimiento de los casos y la gestión del sistema en el 2011, si se compara con la década precedente(AU)

Introduction: The control of blood pressure is a global challenge and one of the main public health problems nowadays. Objectives: To describe the factors related to the evolution, detection and control of hypertension in Cienfuegos from 2001 to 2011 in a scenario of universal access to health services. Methods: Population study developed during 2011, with a representative, probabilistic sample of 1276 adults in the ages from 25 to 74 years old whom lived in the city of Cienfuegos, Cuba. Results: From the hypertensive patients, 32,8 percent were unaware of their condition, 90 percent of those who knew their condition had treatment, and 29,8 percent were controlled. Uncontrolled hypertension's risk was significantly higher in people with age ≥ 65 years, the ones of black race or mixed race, in the ones not attending to the doctor's consultation or not controlling the blood pressure for more than one year. In relation to 2001, the percentage of hypertensive patients who did not know their condition increased by 11,3 percent; the number of treated patients was reduced by 3,4 percent and the level of control by 10 percent. Conclusions: There are a group of factors as age, race, and the lack of follow up to these patients in the health care services in order to detect and control hypertension that affect its behavior. The results, although better than those observed in other countries in the region, show a gap in terms of detection and control of hypertension, the follow up of the patients and management of the system in the year 2011 in comparison with the previous decade(AU)

The Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemic in El Salvador: A Cross-Sectional Study.

INTRODUCTION Chronic kidney disease has reached epidemic levels in several Central American countries since the early years of this century. In El Salvador, it is the second cause of death in men, the fifth in persons over 18 years old and the third cause of hospital deaths in the adult population. Its features, especially those of a subtype unassociated with traditional risk factors such as diabetes and high blood pressure, are only partially understood. OBJECTIVE Estimate the magnitude of chronic kidney disease in the adult population of El Salvador, considering both prevalence of the disease in its diverse forms as well as presence of potential risk factors nationally and in major subpopulations. METHODS A descriptive, cross-sectional analysis was conducted on data obtained from the Survey of Chronic Non-communicable Diseases in Adults in El Salvador, completed in 2015. The original data (interviews and measurements) were collected between October 2014 and March 2015 from 4817 adults employing a two-stage probabilistic cluster sample, with stratification of primary sampling units. Our analysis, using 20 of the 118 primary variables included in the original survey, focused on point estimation of prevalence rates and means, related to both traditional biological risk factors and nontraditional ones, such as insufficient hydration, strenuous working conditions and exposure to toxic agents. A separate analysis was performed to estimate prevalence of chronic kidney disease from nontraditional causes. Corresponding confidence intervals were calculated with proper weighting. RESULTS The general prevalence of chronic kidney disease in El Salvador was 12.8% (men 18.0%; women 8.7%). Of the chronically ill kidney patients, 13.1% were between 20 and 40 years of age. Among biological risk factors, the most frequent was high blood pressure (37.0%). Among nontraditional risk factors, high levels of sugary drink consumption (81.0%), insufficient hydration (65.9%) and high levels of exposure to agrochemicals in the work environment (12.6%) were also observed. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease from nontraditional causes was 3.9% (men 6.1%; women 2.2%). CONCLUSIONS Chronic kidney disease has reached epidemic proportions in El Salvador. The data confirm a health tragedy that, although especially striking older men, also takes a severe toll on young men and women. The results confirm findings of previous research in several Salvadoran agricultural communities. The relatively high level of population exposure to agrochemicals is important and alarming, especially in rural areas, meriting health-impact studies that include and go beyond possible impact on chronic kidney disease. KEYWORDS Kidney, renal insufficiency, chronic, risk factors, epidemics, El Salvador.

Osos polares que se convierten en personas y congresos depredadores / Polar bears that turn into people and predatory congresses

A lo largo de los últimos cinco años, la Revista Cubana de Información en Ciencias de la Salud (RCICS) publicó algunos artículos1,2 destinados a tratar de conseguir elevadas cotas de integridad científica en aquella información que luego se disemina en revistas o redes (ya sea por vías formales como informales). En ese contexto, se precavía acerca de editoriales que mercan inescrupulosamente con la ingenuidad de los autores,3 así como sobre revistas presuntamente científicas que en su momento recibieron una calificación que llegó para quedarse: las llamadas "predatory journals(AU)

Over the last five years, the Cuban Journal of Information in Health Sciences (RCICS) published some articles1,2 aimed at trying to achieve high levels of scientific integrity in that information that is then disseminated in magazines or networks (and either formal or informal). In this context, he cautioned against publishers who market unscrupulously with the ingenuity of the authors, 3 as well as about allegedly scientific journals that at the time received a qualification that came to stay: the so-called predatory journals(AU)

Osos polares que se convierten en personas y congresos depredadores / Polar bears that turn into people and predatory congresses

A lo largo de los últimos cinco años, la Revista Cubana de Información en Ciencias de la Salud (RCICS) publicó algunos artículos1,2 destinados a tratar de conseguir elevadas cotas de integridad científica en aquella información que luego se disemina en revistas o redes (ya sea por vías formales como informales). En ese contexto, se precavía acerca de editoriales que mercan inescrupulosamente con la ingenuidad de los autores,3 así como sobre revistas presuntamente científicas que en su momento recibieron una calificación que llegó para quedarse: las llamadas "predatory journals(AU)

Over the last five years, the Cuban Journal of Information in Health Sciences (RCICS) published some articles1,2 aimed at trying to achieve high levels of scientific integrity in that information that is then disseminated in magazines or networks (and either formal or informal). In this context, he cautioned against publishers who market unscrupulously with the ingenuity of the authors, 3 as well as about allegedly scientific journals that at the time received a qualification that came to stay: the so-called predatory journals(AU)

Uso inercial de técnicas estadístico-inferenciales: su posible impacto en el hallazgo de resultados falsos en salud / Inertial use of statistical-inferential techniques: its possible impact on the finding of false health results

Objetivo:Sondear el grado en que importantes recursos estadísticos, en particular los valores p, los intervalos de confianza y los procedimientos para determinar tamaños muestral es, se emplean en la literatura biomédica de manera ritual. Metodología:se seleccionaron 25 artículos originales publicados en cada una de 4 revistas indexadas del campo biomédico. Para cada uno de ellos se evalúo si cumplían con las indicaciones de las guías STROBE y CONSORT en lo concerniente al tamaño de la muestra, así como el uso de los valores p, de los intervalos de confianza y la utilización de estos en la discusión del artículo. Resultados:el 97.0% de los artículos reporta el tamaño de la muestra, pero sólo el 62.9% explica cómo fue de-terminado. El valor p se usa con mayor frecuencia (68.0%) que los intervalos de confianza (63.9%). Solo el 15.5% usa los intervalos deconfianza en la discusión. Conclusión:las herramientas estadísticas más convencionales se emplean en buena medida de manera más ceremonial que funcional.

Objective: To evaluate the degree in which important statistical resources,particularly p-values, confidence intervals and procedures for determiningsample sizes, are used in the biomedical literature through a ritual way.Methodology:A total of 25 original articles published in each of 4journals indexed in the biomedical field were selected. For each of them,it was assessed whether they follow the instructions of the STROBE andCONSORT guidelines regarding the sample size, as well as the use of p-values, confidence intervals, and the use of these in the discussion of thearticle. Results:The 97.0% of the articles reported thesample size, but only 62.9% explained how it wasdetermined. The p-value is used more frequently(68.0%) than the confidence intervals (63.9%). Only15.5% uses confidence intervals in the discussionsection.Conclusion:the most conventional statistical toolsare used more in ceremonial way rather than in afunctional one.

Comorbilidad y factores sociodemográficos asociados a litiasis renal en personas de 40 a 65 años: estudio transversal / Comorbidity and socio-demographic factors associated with renal lithiasis in persons aged 40 to 65: A cross-sectional study

Fundamento y objetivo: La litiasis renal es una de las enfermedades urológicas más importantes. Parece estar relacionada con factores sociodemográficos y climáticos, estilos de vida y comorbilidad preexistente. El objetivo de este trabajo fue examinar la relación entre variables sociodemográficas, ciertos factores de riesgo y enfermedades crónicas, y la litiasis renal. Pacientes y método: Se realizó un estudio transversal, seleccionando a población española de 40 a 65 años, combinando 2 muestras aleatorias (PreLiRenA y PreLiRenE). Los datos fueron recogidos por encuestas telefónicas personales, recopilando información sobre variables sociodemográficas y la morbilidad percibida. También se recogieron datos sobre las temperaturas medias anuales en cada región española. Se realizó un análisis bivariado y multivariado. Resultados: Fueron encuestados 4.894 sujetos; el 51,3% eran mujeres; el 25% tenían entre 40 y 45 años; el 36% tenían educación primaria y el 31,4% eran de clase social baja. La prevalencia global de litiasis renal fue del 15,0% (intervalo de confianza al 95% [IC 95%] 14,5-15,5). Por medio del análisis multivariado, las variables que mostraron una fuerte relación estadística con la presencia de litiasis renal fueron: edad avanzada (61-65 años, OR=1,39; IC 95% 1,06-1,8), clase social alta (OR=1,98; IC 95% 1,29-2,62), antecedentes familiares de litiasis renal (OR=2,22; IC 95% 1,88-2,65), hipertensión arterial (OR=1,68; IC 95% 1,39-2,02) y sobrepeso/obesidad (OR=1,31; IC 95% 1,12-1,54). Se observó una correlación entre la litiasis renal y las temperaturas medias anuales en las regiones españolas (r=0,59; p=0,013). Conclusiones: Existe relación entre litiasis renal y edad avanzada, pertenecer a clases sociales altas, existencia de antecedentes familiares de urolitiasis, y tener hipertensión y sobrepeso/obesidad. La prevalencia de la litiasis renal es mayor en las zonas climáticas más cálidas (AU)

Background and objective: Renal lithiasis is one of the most important urological diseases. It seems to be related to different socio-demographic and climatic factors, lifestyle and pre-existing comorbidity. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between socio-demographic variables, certain risk factors and chronic diseases and the renal lithiasis. Patients and method: A cross-sectional population-based study was carried out, selecting the Spanish population aged from 40 to 65 years, combining 2 random samples (PreLiRenA and PreLiRenE studies). Data were collected by personal telephone surveys, gathering information on socio-demographic variables and perceived morbidity. Data on annual average temperatures in each Spanish region were also collected. A bivariate and multivariate analysis was performed. Results: A total of 4,894 subjects were surveyed; 51.3% were women; 25% were aged 40-45 years, 36% had primary school education and 31.4% were of low social class. The overall prevalence of renal lithiasis was 15.0% (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 14.5-15.5). By means of multivariate analysis, the variables that showed a strong statistical relationship with the presence of renal lithiasis were: older age (61-65 years; OR=1.39; 95% CI 1.06-1.80), high social class (OR=1.98; 95% CI 1.29-2.62), family history of renal lithiasis (OR=2.22; 95% CI 1.88-2.65), high blood pressure (OR=1.68; 95% CI 1.39-2.02) and overweight/obesity (OR=1.31; 95% CI 1.12-1.54). A correlation was observed between renal lithiasis and average annual temperatures in the Spanish regions (r=0.59; P=.013). Conclusions: A relationship was observed between renal lithiasis and older age, belonging to higher social classes, the existence of a family history of urolithiasis, and hypertension and overweight or obesity. The prevalence of renal lithiasis is greater in warmer climate zones (AU)

Comorbidity and socio-demographic factors associated with renal lithiasis in persons aged 40 to 65: A cross-sectional study. / Comorbilidad y factores sociodemográficos asociados a litiasis renal en personas de 40 a 65 años: estudio transversal.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Renal lithiasis is one of the most important urological diseases. It seems to be related to different socio-demographic and climatic factors, lifestyle and pre-existing comorbidity. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between socio-demographic variables, certain risk factors and chronic diseases and the renal lithiasis. PATIENTS AND METHOD: A cross-sectional population-based study was carried out, selecting the Spanish population aged from 40 to 65 years, combining 2 random samples (PreLiRenA and PreLiRenE studies). Data were collected by personal telephone surveys, gathering information on socio-demographic variables and perceived morbidity. Data on annual average temperatures in each Spanish region were also collected. A bivariate and multivariate analysis was performed. RESULTS: A total of 4,894 subjects were surveyed; 51.3% were women; 25% were aged 40-45 years, 36% had primary school education and 31.4% were of low social class. The overall prevalence of renal lithiasis was 15.0% (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 14.5-15.5). By means of multivariate analysis, the variables that showed a strong statistical relationship with the presence of renal lithiasis were: older age (61-65 years; OR=1.39; 95% CI 1.06-1.80), high social class (OR=1.98; 95% CI 1.29-2.62), family history of renal lithiasis (OR=2.22; 95% CI 1.88-2.65), high blood pressure (OR=1.68; 95% CI 1.39-2.02) and overweight/obesity (OR=1.31; 95% CI 1.12-1.54). A correlation was observed between renal lithiasis and average annual temperatures in the Spanish regions (r=0.59; P=.013). CONCLUSIONS: A relationship was observed between renal lithiasis and older age, belonging to higher social classes, the existence of a family history of urolithiasis, and hypertension and overweight or obesity. The prevalence of renal lithiasis is greater in warmer climate zones.

Prevalencia de la urolitiasis en la población española de 40 a 65 años: Estudio PreLiRenE / Prevalence of urolithiasis in the 40 to 65 year old Spanish population: The PreLiRenE study

Fundamento y objetivo: La urolitiasis constituye una afección frecuente, cuya prevalencia se ha incrementado a nivel mundial. En Andalucía (España) el estudio PreLiRenA mostró una elevada prevalencia (16,4%; intervalo de confianza al 95% [IC 95%] 14,8-17,8) en población de 40 a 65 años, lo cual nos hizo cuestionarnos cuál sería la situación a nivel nacional. El objetivo fue estimar la prevalencia de urolitiasis en la población española de entre 40 y 65 años. Pacientes y método: Estudio observacional, transversal, mediante muestreo estratificado según las regiones del país, sexo y edad. Se realizaron un total de 2.444 entrevistas telefónicas mediante un cuestionario que incluía variables sociodemográficas y clínicas. Se realizó una estadística descriptiva y bivariada, calculando las ratios de prevalencia (RP) con IC 95%. Resultados: De los 2.444 sujetos entrevistados, el 51,2% (n = 1.251) eran mujeres. La prevalencia de urolitiasis fue del 14,6% (IC 95% 13,1-15,9), y la incidencia, del 2,9% (IC 95% 2,2-3,6). Se observaron diferencias significativas respecto a la edad, con una mayor prevalencia en pacientes de 46-50 años (RP 1,58; IC 95% 1,12-2,21; p < 0,001) y 61-65 años (RP 1,47; IC 95% 1,02-2,13), así como de clase social elevada (RP 1,75; IC 95% 1,07-2,86; p = 0,024). Un 52,8% presentó más de un episodio de urolitiasis. El 46,9% expulsó el cálculo espontáneamente y el 51,1% fue diagnosticado en Urgencias. Conclusiones: Se observa una elevada prevalencia de urolitiasis entre la población española de 40 a 65 años, sobre todo entre los sujetos de clase social superior y mediana edad, así como una alta tasa de recurrencia (AU)

Background and objective: Urolithiasis is a common urologic condition with increasing incidence in the population worldwide. In Andalusia (Spain), the PreLiRenA study showed a high prevalence (16.4%; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 14.8-17.8) of this condition in population aged between 40 and 65 years. The interesting results reported in that study encouraged us to further investigate the magnitude of this condition at a national level. We aimed to estimate the prevalence of urolithiasis in the Spanish population aged between 40 and 65 years. Patients and method: This is an observational, cross-sectional, prevalence, stratified sampling study by Spanish region, sex and age. A total of 2,444 telephone interviews were conducted using a questionnaire that covered several sociodemographic and clinical variables. Bivariate, descriptive statistical study was performed. The prevalence ratio (PR) with the 95% CI was calculated. Results: Of the 2,444 subjects interviewed, 51.2% (n = 1,251) were women. The prevalence and incidence of urolithiasis were 14.6% (95% CI 13.1-15.9) and 2.9% (95% CI 2.2-3.6), respectively. Significant differences were found by age, with a higher prevalence in 46-50 years (PR 1.58; 95% CI 1.12-2.21;P < .001) and 61-65 years (PR 1.47; 95% CI 1.02-2.13), and upper-class subjects (PR 1.75; 95% CI 1.07-2.86; P < .024). Of respondents, 52.8% had experienced more than one episode of urolithiasis. A total of 46.9% passed the calculus spontaneously, and 51.1% were diagnosed in the Emergency Unit. Conclusions: The prevalence of urolithiasis in the Spanish population aged between 40 and 65 years is high; especially among upper-class subjects and in middle-aged. A high recurrence rate is also observed (AU)

[Prevalence of urolithiasis in the 40 to 65 year old Spanish population: The PreLiRenE study]. / Prevalencia de la urolitiasis en la población española de 40 a 65 años: Estudio PreLiRenE.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Urolithiasis is a common urologic condition with increasing incidence in the population worldwide. In Andalusia (Spain), the PreLiRenA study showed a high prevalence (16.4%; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 14.8-17.8) of this condition in population aged between 40 and 65 years. The interesting results reported in that study encouraged us to further investigate the magnitude of this condition at a national level. We aimed to estimate the prevalence of urolithiasis in the Spanish population aged between 40 and 65 years. PATIENTS AND METHOD: This is an observational, cross-sectional, prevalence, stratified sampling study by Spanish region, sex and age. A total of 2,444 telephone interviews were conducted using a questionnaire that covered several sociodemographic and clinical variables. Bivariate, descriptive statistical study was performed. The prevalence ratio (PR) with the 95% CI was calculated. RESULTS: Of the 2,444 subjects interviewed, 51.2% (n=1,251) were women. The prevalence and incidence of urolithiasis were 14.6% (95% CI 13.1-15.9) and 2.9% (95% CI 2.2-3.6), respectively. Significant differences were found by age, with a higher prevalence in 46-50 years (PR 1.58; 95% CI 1.12-2.21; P<.001) and 61-65 years (PR 1.47; 95% CI 1.02-2.13), and upper-class subjects (PR 1.75; 95% CI 1.07-2.86; P<.024). Of respondents, 52.8% had experienced more than one episode of urolithiasis. A total of 46.9% passed the calculus spontaneously, and 51.1% were diagnosed in the Emergency Unit. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of urolithiasis in the Spanish population aged between 40 and 65 years is high; especially among upper-class subjects and in middle-aged. A high recurrence rate is also observed.

Statistical tools in published articles of a public health journal in 2013 and 2014: bibliometric cross-sectional study.

INTRODUCTION: Research projects use statistical resources to express in numerical or graphic terms different magnitudes like frequencies, differences or associations. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this paper is to describe the statistics tools utilization, with special emphasis in the use of conventional statistical tests and confidence intervals, to communicate results in a renowned public health peer reviewed journal in Colombia. METHODS: We included the 84 articles published in the journal between 2013 and 2014. RESULTS: The most used resource is frequency analysis (89.3%), followed by p values (65.5%) and confidence intervals (53.6%); 48.9% of the papers used confidence intervals together with p values; 29.8% use neither of them; 16.7% of the articles only used p values and 4.8% only confidence intervals. CONCLUSIONS: Descriptive statistics is a tool widely used in research results presentation; the critics and caveats suggesting to avoid the exclusive use of the statistical signification test in the results presentation are not followed in the analysis and presentation of the research results.

INTRODUCCIÓN : El desarrollo de proyectos de investigación suele demandar del uso de herramientas matemáticas para expresar en términos numéricos o gráficos diversas magnitudes, tales como frecuencias, diferencias, o asociaciones. OBJETIVOS: El presente estudio se propone describir la utilización que se hace de las herramientas estadísticas básicas, haciendo especial énfasis en el uso de las pruebas de significación estadística y los intervalos de confianza, para la presentación de resultados de investigación en los artículos publicados en una reconocida revista de la salud pública en Colombia. MÉTODOS: Se realizó una revisión de los 84 artículos originales publicados en dicha revista entre 2013 y 2014. RESULTADOS: El recurso más empleado es la utilización de análisis de frecuencias (89,3%), seguido de los valores p (65,5%) y los intervalos de confianza (53,6%); el 48,9% de los artículos utiliza a la vez intervalos de confianza y valores p para la presentación de resultados y el 29,8% ninguno de los dos. El 16,7% de los artículos sólo utiliza valores p y el 4,8% sólo intervalos de confianza. CONCLUSIONES: La estadística descriptiva es una herramienta que se utiliza con asiduidad en la presentación de resultados y que las críticas y advertencias sugiriendo que se evite el uso exclusivo de las pruebas de significación estadística en la presentación de resultados no son cabalmente tenidas en cuenta en el análisis y presentación de los resultados de investigación.